Jerusalem, a mosaic of different peoples, faiths, and nationalities.
Nevertheless, despite this diversity, under the sovereignty of Israel,
Jerusalem is a city that works. But has it always been this way?
Science and technology in Israel is one of the country's most developed sectors. The percentage of Israelis engaged in scientific and technological inquiry, and the amount spent on research and development (R&D) in relation to gross domestic product (GDP), is the highest in the world.[1] Israel ranks fourth in the world in scientific activity as measured by the number of scientific publications
per million citizens. Israel's percentage of the total number of
scientific articles published worldwide is almost 10 times higher than
its percentage of the world's population.[2]
Israel boasts the highest number of scientists, technicians, and
engineers per capita in the world with 140 scientists, technicians, and
engineers per 10,000 employees. In comparison, the same is 85 per 10,000
in the United States and 83 per 10,000 in Japan.[3][4][5]
Israeli scientists have contributed to the advancement of agriculture, computer sciences, electronics, genetics, health care, optics, solar energy and various fields of engineering. Israel is home to major players in the high tech industry and has one of the world's most technologically-literate populations.[6] In 1998, Tel Aviv was named by Newsweek as one of the ten most technologically influential cities in the world.[7] Since 2000, Israel has been a member of EUREKA,
the pan-European research and development funding and coordination
organization, and held the rotating chairmanship of the organization for
2010–2011.[8][9] In 2010, the journalist David Kaufman, wrote that the high tech area of Yokneam, Israel has the "world's largest concentration of aesthetics-technology companies".[10]Google's Chairman Eric Schmidt
complimented the country during a visit there, saying that “Israel has
the most important high-tech center in the world after the US.”[11
Israel is a powerhouse in medical
innovation. We give you a dozen standouts from a field with many
exciting, game-changing candidates.
Israeli ingenuity is responsible for some of the world’s most amazing medical advances.
Whether they’re futuristic, such as Given Imaging’s PillCam capsule endoscopy or Itamar Medical’s fingertip monitors for sleep disorders and cardiac issues — or cleverly simple, such as First Care Products’ Emergency Bandage
– blue-and-white inventions are changing the face of healthcare in
hospitals, doctors’ offices, homes and even battlefields worldwide.
Spread the Word • Email this article to friends or colleagues • Share this article on Facebook or Twitter • Write about and link to this article on your blog • Local relevancy? Send this article to your local press
2. Argo Medical Technologies’ Rewalk robotic exoskeleton from was featured on the hit TV show “Glee” and enabled paraplegic runners in London
and Tel Aviv to complete marathons. The ReWalk Rehabilitation model
currently is used by patients in rehab centers from New York to
Dusseldorf. ReWalk Personal, for everyday home use, is available
throughout Europe and awaiting FDA clearance in the United States. 3. Gamida Cell is developing stem-cell therapy
products to treat blood cancers, solid tumors, non-malignant blood
diseases such as sickle-cell anemia, autoimmune diseases and genetic
metabolic diseases. On Sept. 9, the first patient was successfully
transplanted at Duke University Medical Center (North Carolina) in the
second Phase I/II study of NiCord, Gamida’s experimental treatment for
blood cancers. 4. GI View Aer-O-Scope
disposable colorectal cancer screening device, now in US trials, will
make lifesaving colonoscopy screenings cheaper, safer and more
accessible worldwide. The self-navigating, flexible Aer-O-Scope removes
the risk of perforating the colon, provides superior imaging and can be
used by a trained nurse or technician so a gastroenterologist does not
have to be present. 5. IceCure Medical’s IceSense3
has been used by US doctors since 2011 to remove benign breast lumps in
a 10-minute ultrasound-guided procedure that penetrates the tumor and
engulfs it with ice. The system is being clinically tested over the next
few years against small malignant breast tumors as well. The procedure
is done in a doctor’s office, clinic or breast center, and the patient
can get up and leave afterward with no recovery period or post-care.
6. InSightec’s ExAblate OR
uses MRI-guided focused ultrasound to destroy tumors and uterine
fibroid cysts without surgery. The company has begun a Phase III trial
of its next product, ExAblate Neuro, to cure essential tremor — a common
movement disorder – using the same non-invasive technology to
significantly lower risk of infection, hemorrhage and brain damage.
7. IonMed’s BioWeld1
bonds surgical incisions using cold plasma — instead of painful
stitches, staples or glue – within minutes, sealing and disinfecting the
wound with minimal scarring and recovery time. The CE Mark is expected
in October, with European sales and US FDA approval process starting in
early 2014.
8. Nano Retina’s Bio-Retina,
a tiny implantable device inserted into the retina in a 30-minute
procedure, turns into an artificial retina that melds to the neurons in
the eye. Activated by special eyeglasses, the device transforms natural
light into an electrical impulse that stimulates neurons to send images
to the brain. The prototype is advancing quickly through clinical
trials. 9. NanoPass Technologies’ MicronJet
is a unique, FDA-approved single-use needle for painless delivery of
vaccines into the skin using semiconductor technology. The product has
been proven to generate superior immune response with less vaccine,
because it does not go past the skin level. Licensed last year to
Janssen Pharmaceuticals, MicronJet is being used by the US Center of
Disease Control (CDC) in a large trial of polio vaccine for infants in
Southeast Asia. 10. OrSense’s NBM-200 non-invasive monitor is relied
upon by blood donation centers in 40 countries for continuous and spot
measuring of potential donors’ hemoglobin level (to check for anemia)
and other blood parameters. This device eliminates the need for finger
pricking as well as biologically hazardous equipment and waste. Studies
show that donors screened this way are more likely to become repeat
blood donors. OrSense recently completed successful trials using its technology to detect hemorrhage and anemia in pregnant women. 11. Surpass Medical’s NeuroEndoGraft flow diverters
redirect blood flow from a brain aneurysm (a bulge in a weak artery
wall), so that a stable clot can form and the potentially fatal aneurysm
no longer is in danger of rupturing. The family of devices has the CE
Mark and has been used successfully in dozens of patients. US medical
device manufacturer Stryker acquired Surpass for $100 million in October
2012. 12. VitalGo Systems’ Total Lift bed
is the world’s only hospital-grade bed that can elevate a patient from a
lying to a fully standing position — and all points in between — for
treatment and transfer with no lifting required of the caregiver. Two
major companies are distributing Total Lift in the acute-care and
home-care markets in the United States.
Israel NewTech is launching an exciting new tool to showcase Israeli companies’ projects in the cleantech arena throughout the world – the CleanTech Map.
This Facebook application allows visitors to view Israeli cleantech
projects and installations anywhere in the world. Visitors simply go
into the map, and search by either category and subcategory (for example
– water- desalination) or by browsing the map. Visitors may then read
about each project, view photos or clips, and contact the company.
“We’re very excited about this new application,” says Adi
Yefet-Beeri, who is responsible for the water sector at Israel NewTech.
“Our objective is to open doors for Israeli companies around the world,
and to inform about Israeli technology innovations, and this is a
perfect vehicle for doing so. We believe it will be a strong marketing
tool that all Israeli cleantech companies – from water, to alternative
energy, agriculture and environment – can benefit from and use to
advance themselves internationally.”
“Israel is already known as an innovation leader in water and
renewable energy,” says Ophir Gore, who is responsible for renewable
energy at Israel NewTech. “We are showing that, beyond technology
breakthroughs, Israel’s water and alternative energy industries are
mature. There are hundreds of installations, functioning projects by
both young and mature companies, providing cleantech services around the
world.”
Oded Distel, head of Israel NewTech, summarizes, “Israel’s cleantech
industry is experiencing a tremendous momentum. When the Israel NewTech
program began its activity in 2006 Israel’s exports in the water sector
totaled $600 Million, in 2011 they already reached $2 Billion. Our
program is dedicated to continuing to provide maximum international
exposure to Israel’s cleantech companies, and this Cleantech Map is
another important tool in our efforts.”
Agriculture in Israel is a highly developed industry: Israel is a major exporter of fresh produce and a world-leader in agricultural technologies despite the fact that the geography of Israel is not naturally conducive to agriculture. More than half of the land area is desert, and the climate and lack of water resources do not favor farming. Only 20% of the land area is naturally arable.[1] Today agriculture represents 2.5% of total GDP and 3.6% of exports.[2]
While agricultural workers make up only 3.7% of the work force, Israel
produces 95% of its own food requirements, supplementing this with
imports of grain, oilseeds, meat, coffee, cocoa and sugar.[2]
Israel is home to two unique types of agricultural communities, the kibbutz and moshav, which developed as Jews all over the world made aliyah to the country and embarked on a pioneering enterprise.[citation needed]
Citrus packing in Hadera before the establishment of the state.
The development of modern agriculture was closely tied to the Zionist
movement and Jewish immigration to Palestine in the late nineteenth
century.[3]
Jews who immigrated purchased land that was mostly semi-arid, although
much had been rendered untillable by deforestation, soil erosion and
neglect.[2]
They set about clearing rocky fields, constructing terraces, draining
swampland, reforesting, counteracting soil erosion, and washing salty
land.[2] Since independence in 1948, the total area under cultivation has increased from 408,000 acres (1,650 km2) to 1,070,000 acres (4,300 km2),
while the number of agricultural communities has increased from 400 to
725. Agricultural production has expanded 16 times, three times more
than population growth.[2]
Water shortage is a major problem. Rain falls between September and
April, with an uneven distribution across the country, from 28 inches
(70 cm) in the north to less than 1 inch (2 cm) in the south.[2] Annual renewable water resources are about 5.6 billion cubic feet (160,000,000 m3), 75% of which is used for agriculture.[2] Most of Israel's freshwater sources have been consequently joined to the National Water Carrier, network of pumping stations, reservoirs, canals and pipelines that transfers water from the north to the south.[2]
The importance of agriculture in Israel's economy has fallen over
time, accounting for decreasing values of GDP. In 1979, it accounted for
just under 6% of GDP, in 1985 5.1%, and today, 2.5%.[4]
In 1995, there were 43,000 farm units with an average size of 13.5
hectares. 19.8% of these were smaller than 1 hectare, 75.7% were 1 to 9
hectares in size, 3.3% were between 10 and 49 hectares, 0.4% were
between 50 and 190 hectares, and 0.8% were larger than 200 hectares.[4] Of the 380,000 hectares under cultivation in 1995, 20.8% was under permanent cultivation and 79.2% under rotating cultivation.[4] Farm units included 160,000 hectares used for activities other than cultivation. Cultivation was based mainly in the northern coastal plains, the hills of the interior, and the upper Jordan Valley.[4]
In 2006, agricultural output fell by 0.6% following a 3.6% rise in 2005; inputs for 2007 rose by 1.2% excluding wages.[5] Between 2004 and 2006, vegetables accounted for around 35% of total agricultural output.[5]
Flowers made up around 20%, field crops made up around 18%, fruits
(other than citrus), around 15%, and citrus fruits around 10%.[5]
In 2006, 36.7% of agricultural output was for domestic consumption,
33.9% for domestic manufacturing, and 22% for direct export.[5]
In 2006, 33% of vegetables, 27% of flowers, 16% of field crops, 15.5%
of fruits other than citrus, and 9% of citrus fruits were exported.[5]
The area of irrigated farmland has increased from 74,000 acres (30,000 ha) in 1948 to some 460,000 acres (190,000 ha) today.[2]
Israeli agricultural production rose 26% between 1999 and 2009, while
the number of farmers dropped from 23,500 to 17,000. Farmers have also
grown more with less water, using 12% less water to grow 26% more
produce.[6]
Most of Israel's agriculture is based on cooperative principles that evolved in the early twentieth century.[2] Two unique forms of agricultural settlements; the kibbutz, a collective community in which the means of production are communally owned and each member's work benefits all; and the moshav,
a farming village where each family maintains its own household and
works its own land, while purchasing and marketing are conducted
co-operatively.[2]
Both communities provided a means not only to realise the dream of the
pioneers to have rural communities based on social equality,
co-operation and mutual aid but also to gain agricultural output in a
productive means.[2] Today, between kibbutzim and moshavim, 76% of the country's fresh produce is output, as well as many processed food products.[2]
Due to the diversity of the land and climate across the country,
Israel is able to grow a wide range of crops. Field crops grown in the
country include wheat, sorghum and corn. On 215,000 hectares of land, these sorts of crops are grown, 156,000 hectares of which are winter crops.[7]
Fruit and vegetables grown include citrus, avocados, kiwifruit, guavas and mangoes, grapes from orchards located on the Mediterraneancoastal plain.[2]Tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers and zucchini are grown commonly throughout the country; melons are grown during winters months in the valleys.[2]Subtropical areas in the country produce bananas and dates, while in the northern hillsapples, pears and cherries are grown.[2] Furthermore, grapevineyards are found across the country, as the country's wine industry has developed to become a world-player.[2]
In 1997, $107 million worth of cotton
was grown in Israel with most of this sold in advance on the futures
market. The crop is grown on 28,570 hectares of land, all of which is
drip irrigated. 5.5 tons per hectare of raw cotton is averaged for the Acala crop; the Pima crop averages 5 tons per hectare, which are yields among the highest in the world.[7]
Livestock
Local cows produce the highest amounts of milk per animal in the
world, with an average of 10,208 kilograms (around 10,000 liters) of
dairy in 2009, according to data published in 2011 by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, outperforming cows in the US (9,331 kg (20,571 lb) per cow), Japan (7,497), the European Union (6,139) and Australia (5,601).[8]
A total of 1,304 million liters of milk was produced by Israeli cows in 2010.[8]
All of the Israel's milk
consumption originates from dairy farms within the country with most
herds consisting largely of Israel-Holsteins, a high-yielding,
disease-resistant breed. Furthermore, sheep milk is exported. In terms of poultry, which makes up two thirds of meat consumption, 85% originate from moshavim.[2]
The Mediterranean Sea is a source of salt-water fishing; freshwater fishing occurs on Lake Kinneret (the Sea of Galilee). Pioneering technology is being used to breed fish in artificial lakes in the Negev desert.[2] Scientists of the Bengis Center for Desert Aquaculture at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
discovered that the brackish water under the desert can be used for
agriculture, aquaculture and a combination of the two. This has led to
the farming of fish, shrimp and crustaceans in the Negev.[9] Commercial fishing
in the eastern Mediterranean has declined significantly due to
depletion of fish reserves and the supply of fresh fish in Israel
depends almost entirely on aquaculture. Fish from the Sea of Galilee include silver carp, grass carp, grey mullet, St. Peter’s fish, rock bass, silver perch, and Asian seabass introduced from Australia. Fish grown in cages submerged in the sea include gilthead seabream (called denis in Israel), European sea bass and a South American variety of meager. Trout and salmon are raised in special canal-like ponds of running water of the Dan River, a tributary of the Jordan River.[10]
Fruit and vegetables
Israel is one of the world's leading fresh citrus producers and exporters,[11] including oranges, grapefruit, tangerines and the pomelit, a hybrid of a grapefruit and a pomelo, developed in Israel.[12]
More than forty types of fruit are grown in Israel. In addition to citrus, these include avocados, bananas, apples, cherries, plums, nectarines, grapes, dates, strawberries, prickly pear (tzabbar), persimmon, loquat (shesek) and pomegranates.[13] Israel is the leading producer of loquat (shesek) after Japan.[14]
In 1973, two Israeli scientists, Haim Rabinowitch and Nachum Kedar, developed a variety of tomato with slower ripening than ordinary tomatoes in a hot climate.[15] Their research led to the development of the world's first long shelf-life commercial tomato varieties.[16]
This discovery transformed agricultural economics in Israel, promoting
the export of the vegetables seeds and the move to high-tech farming.[17]
It also had a global impact, enabling large-scale production through
the prevention of spoilage. Previously, farmers were forced to discard
40 percent of their produce.[17]
The Tomaccio
tomato was developed by Hishtil Nurseries, which conducted a 12-year
breeding program using wild Peruvian tomato species to create a sweet
snack tomato.[18]
Flowers
Flowers grown for export
Israel produces vast quantities of flowers for export. Flower exports in 2000 exceeded $50 million.[19] The flowers grown most commonly are Chamelaucium (waxflower), followed by roses, which are grown on 214 hectares of land.[19]
In addition to flowers favored in the West such as lilies, roses and
tulips, Israel exports desert varieties. It has become a major player in
the global floral industry, especially as a supplier of traditional
European flowers during the winter months.[20]
Israel is a world leader in agricultural research and development,
which has led to dramatic increases in the quantity and quality of the
country's crops. The drive to increase yields and crop quality has led
to the development of new seed and plant varieties, as well as to
innovations such as a soil conditioner substance (vermiculite) which, when mixed with local soils, boosts crop yields, and drip irrigation.[2]
The Agritech Exhibition
The Agritech Exhibition, held once every three years, is one of the
leading international events of its kind to showcase Israel and
international agriculture technologies. It traditionally attracts many
Ministers of Agriculture, decision-makers, experts, practitioners and
trainers in agriculture, and thousands of visitors. It provides an
opportunity to see at one site the latest developments in agricultural
sector and advanced agro-technologies, especially in the fields of
irrigation, water management, arid zone agriculture, intensive
greenhouse cultivation, development of new seed varieties, and organic
and ecologically-oriented agriculture.[21]
During 2015 Israel will host the next Agritech Exhibition in Tel
Aviv. At the last Agritech Exhibition in 2012 there were more than
35,000 visitors, and more than 250 exhibitors.[22]
Organic farming
Organic produce makes up 1.5% of Israeli agricultural output, but it
accounts for 13% of agricultural exports. Israel has 70,000 dunams
(70 km2) of organic fields: Vegetable crops grown in open
fields account for 65% of the land use, fruit orchards - 25%, hothouse
vegetables - 6% and herbs - 4%.[23]
Government regulation
Farm surpluses have been almost eradicated in the country, with farms
having production and water quotas for each crop, which have stabilised
prices.[2]Production quotas apply to milk, eggs, poultry and potatoes.[2]
Israel's government also encourages a reduction in agricultural costs
by trying to encourage specialised farming, and halting of production of
crops for which no sufficiently profitable markets exist.[2] The Ministry of Agriculture
oversees the country's agricultural sector, including maintenance of
standards of plant and animal health, agricultural planning, and
research and marketing.[2]
Bond issues and subsidies (Mekorot), government grants,
soft loans and self-financing from revenues (municipalities), equity
and commercial loans (desalination plants)
1 Bulk water supplier
76 cities
144 local councils
53 regional councils
Water supply and sanitation in Israel are intricately linked to the historical development of Israel. Because rain falls only in the winter, and largely in the northern part of the country, irrigation and water engineering
are considered vital to the country's economic survival and growth.
Large scale projects to desalinate seawater, direct water from rivers
and reservoirs in the north, make optimal use of groundwater, and
reclaim flood overflow and sewage have been undertaken. Among them is
the National Water Carrier, carrying water from the country's biggest freshwater lake, the Sea of Galilee, to the northern Negev desert through channels, pipes and tunnels.[4]
Israel's water demand today outstrips available conventional water
resources. Thus, in an average year, Israel relies for about half of its
water supply on unconventional water resources, including reclaimed water and desalination. A particularly long drought in 1998–2002 had prompted the government to promote large-scale seawater desalination.
In ancient Israel, water was a precious resource. Herod the Great ordered his engineers to build aqueducts to transport water to Caesarea, then the second largest city in the country after Jerusalem. They devised a system that allowed water to flow without pumping from the springs near Mount Carmel. Seven aqueducts were constructed at this time, vestiges of which can still be seen today.[5]
Development of conventional water resources (1937-1965)
Because the coastal plain of Judea&samaria had few water resources, Theodor Herzl already envisioned the transfer of water from the Jordan River to the coast for irrigation and drinking water supply. In order to realize that Zionist vision, the water company Mekorot
was created in 1937, more than a decade before the creation of the
state of Israel. In the first two decades of Israel's existence,
substantial financial resources were dedicated to create the National Water Carrier, a complex water supply system including the Shiloach Pipeline along the Burma Road to Jerusalem built during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, a first pipeline to the Negev in 1955 and the transfer of water from the Sea of Galilee in 1964. Furthermore Mekorot began a Rain Enhancement program in 1961, increasing rainfall by 13%-18%. Also, a Brackish Water Pipeline was completed in 1965 to divert brackish ground water from infiltrating the Sea of Galilee.
Water reclamation (1970s and 80s)
Drinking water being collected by hand in Neot Mordechai c. 1947
In 1969 the Shafdan wastewater treatment plant south of Tel Aviv was
completed to treat approximately 130 million cubic meters of wastewater
per year for reuse in agriculture. However, wastewater from other cities
and towns remained largely untreated. In 1970 there was a cholera
outbreak because of illegal irrigation of salad with untreated
wastewater. This gave rise to major investments in wastewater treatment
under the National Sewerage Plan, which emphasized the reuse of treated
wastewater. In 1984 the Kishon wastewater treatment plant was completed
in Northern Israel, It provides 20 million cubic meters of treated
wastewater per year for agricultural use in the fertile Jezreel Valley, maximizing distribution potential during high-demand periods.
Signing of water sharing agreements (1990s)
The 1995 Interim Agreement as part of the Oslo Peace Process
provided certain quantities of water to the Palestinians, but prevents
them from drilling any new wells in the Mountain Aquifer. The surface
water of the Jordan River remains disputed with Syria, Lebanon
and the Palestinians. Only with Jordan Israel was able to reach an
agreement on the sharing of water resources in 1995 as part of the Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty.
In 1997, the first reverse osmosis desalination plant in Israel opened in Eilat.
In 2002, under the impact of drought, the Government approved the
construction of large seawater desalination plants along the
Mediterranean coast. These installations would supply 305 million m3/yr of desalinated water by the year 2010 and 500 million m³/yr by 2015.[6] By mid-2008 two of the new plants with a capacity of 130 million m3/yr
were in operation. In parallel to the desalination program the cabinet
also decided to promote water savings activities that could reduce
household water use by at least 10 percent. In 2012, the Ashkelon
Desalination Plant was converting 15,000 to 16,000 cubic meters of
seawater to fresh water every hour, supplying 15 percent of Israel's
annual water supply.[7]
In July 2007 Water Commissioner Uri Shani warned about a decline in
rainfall, exacerbating Israel's water crisis. "The drop in water supply
derives from atmospheric contamination, which affects cloud composition
and causes a drop in rainfall levels. Every year we record less water
entering Lake Kinneret
in the winter. Another factor in the drop in water supply is
contamination of the coastal aquifer, which reduces the amount of water
that can be pumped out."[8]
In 2007 Mekorot inaugurated its advanced Central Filtration Plant at the company's Eshkol
facility. Built at a cost of more than $100 million, the sophisticated
plant has annual filtering capacity in excess of 500 million cubic
meters per year. It is the largest plant of its type in Israel and one
of the largest in the world. In 2008 Mekorot lay a fifth pipeline to
Jerusalem to double the quantity of water and provide 150 million cubic
meters annually, including desalinated water.[9] In March 2008 National Infrastructures Minister Benjamin Ben-Eliezer
and Water Authority head Uri Shani began to explore options for new
wastewater treatment plants and reservoirs. Another alternative
considered was more expensive but less land-intensive membrane bioreactors.[10]
In 2006 the Dan Regional Wastewater Board was criticized for plans to
incinerate sludge to replace the practice of dumping it into the sea.
Critics said the sludge should be used as fertilizer in agriculture.[11]
In July 2008, in the middle of another drought, the Knesset
established a state commission of inquiry into the slow progress of
desalination. Desalination capacity was less than a third of the amount
set by the cabinet, mostly due to a slowdown in tenders after a few
years of relatively high rainfall. The planned water-saving activities
were stopped completely and were resumed only in 2006, but at a slow
pace.[12] However, a vigorous water savings campaign was then started featuring videos by famous Israelis such as singer Ninet Tayeb, model Bar Refaeli and actor Moshe Ivgy. The campaign resulted in reducing water use by more than 10 percent, saving the construction of a desalination plant.[13]
In its final report in March 2010 the commission of inquiry, headed by
former judge Dan Bein, concluded that changes were needed in the Water
Law of 1959.[14]
The Finance Ministry was accused of having delayed desalination plans
arguing that conservation and wastewater reuse should have been
implemented first. Only years later, the ministry endorsed large-scale
desalination. The Water Authority was said to have been slow,
non-transparent and that it failed to coordinate with various
ministries.[15] Infrastructure Minister Uzi Landau
endorsed the report and announced that his Ministry would submit a bill
to curtail the Water Authority's powers and to put it more firmly under
the control of his Ministry.[16]
New National Water System (2009 onwards)
In January 2009 Mekorot
said it would invest more than NIS 2 billion (US$ 500 million) in a new
National Water System with several east-west arteries relying on
pumping, complementing and partly substituting for the National Water
Carrier running from north to south that relied on gravity. The new
pipelines would connect the five new desalination plants along the coast
with water users. The project would include the construction of
100-kilometer water channels, advanced quality control and command
systems, and water reservoirs. When completed, most drinking water
supplied to Israel’s residents from Hadera southwards – in other words,
most of the country’s population – would come from desalinated seawater.[17]
By 2014, Israel's desalination programs provided roughly 35% of
Israel's drinking water and it is expected to supply 40% by 2015 and 70%
by 2050.[18]
Water resources
Conventional water resources
Sea of Galilee
Historically, Israel had about 1,780 million cubic meters of conventional freshwater and brackish water
resources at its disposal. More than half of these resources consisted
of inflows from the Golan Heights (275 million), Lebanon (310 million)
and the West Bank (345 million). 92 percent of the conventional water
resources were considered economically exploitable, the rest being
excess floodwaters. The usable amount consisted of about 1.1 billion
cubic meters of groundwater and springs and 0.6 billion from surface water. About 80% of the water resources are located in the North of the country and only 20% in the South.[19] However, average rainfall has declined, possibly as a result of climate change,
so that conventional water resources are now estimated at less than
1,336 million cubic meters in an average year over the period 1975-2011.
The median was even lower at 1,202 million cubic meters per year.[20] The Sea of Galilee
and the Coastal Aquifer are Israel's main water storage facilities,
with a combined storage capacity of about 2 billion cubic meters. The
coastal aquifer is used as underground storage: It is being recharged in
winter through recharge wells, and water is recovered in the summer
during the irrigation season. Israel relies increasingly on
non-conventional water resources such as reclaimed water and desalinated
seawater.
The security of these resources is impacted by riparian conflicts. Several hundred million cubic meters of groundwater in the West Bank Mountain Aquifer are disputed between Israel and the Palestinians. Under the 1995 Interim Agreement as part of the Oslo Peace Process
Israel provided 52 million cubic meters of water to the Palestinians in
2011, but prevents them from drilling new wells in the Mountain
Aquifer. The surface water of the Jordan River remains disputed with Syria, Lebanon
and the Palestinians. Only with Jordan was Israel able to reach an
agreement on the sharing of water resources in 1995 as part of the Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty. 48 million cubic meters of water per year were provided to Israel under the Peace Treaty in 2011.[13][20]
Droughts
Successive years of drought from 1998–2002 had dramatically lowered
water levels in all of the main reservoirs. 1998–1999 was the worst
drought year in Israel for the past 100 years. The following years were
also characterized by less than average rainfall which led to a
shortfall of some half a billion cubic meters in Israel's water balance
each year, in comparison to an average year. The winters of 2002–03 and
2003–04 were characterized by average and higher than average rainfall
which led to a significant rise in the water level of the Sea of Galilee
and in the collection of floodwater in catchment reservoirs. However,
the country's aquifers have remained depleted. It was estimated in 2003
that increased water demand and decreased water availability has led to a
cumulative deficit of nearly 2 billion cubic metres.[21] In 2008 another drought occurred.
Reclaimed water
In 2010, about 400 million cubic metres/year of treated wastewater (reclaimed water) was reused, primarily in agriculture.[22] 100% of the sewage from the Tel Aviv metropolitan area was treated and reused as irrigation water for fields and public works.[23] There are 120 wastewater treatment plants in Israel. The three largest plants are: Dan Region Plant (120 million cubic metres/year) using activated sludge and nutrient removal, with reuse in the Western Negev; Haifa Plant (37 million cubic metres/year), with reuse in the Jezreel valley, and the Jerusalem Sorek Plant (23 million cubic metres/year), located in the basin of the Sorek River. Many of the smaller wastewater treatment plants are waste stabilization ponds, a low-cost and low-energy treatment that eliminates pathogens while conserving nutrients. An example is the Arab village of Kfar Manda in the Western Galilee, whose wastewater is being treated and reused for irrigation in the neighboring Jewish community of Yodfat.[24]
Treated wastewater constituted about 17% of consumption by the
agricultural sector. In 2003, the Ministry of Environment estimated that
effluents would constitute 40% of the water supplied to agriculture in
2005, 45% in 2010 and 50% in 2020.[25]
Artificial groundwater recharge
Menashe groundwater recharge project reservoir
Artificial groundwater recharge
is practiced extensively in Israel from flood water, potable water from
the National Water Carrier and treated wastewater. Artificial recharge
has increased groundwater levels in the Coastal Aquifer and counteracted
further seawater intrusion. Groundwater recharge from flood water is
done by collecting runoff from winter rains in a drainage basin and
directing it into recharge ponds. The groundwater is then pumped back up
during summer through wells around the recharge ponds. The cost of the
recharge process is limited to maintenance, with pumping costs amounting
to only $0.02-$0.03 per cubic meter. About 40-50% more water than the
average recharge is pumped from the aquifer in order to create a
temporary hydrological depression that creates space for artificial
recharge the following winter.
The largest recharge plant in Israel is the Menashe plant in the
Northern coastal plain, which is operated by Mekorot. The drainage basin
of the Menashe plant is 189 square kilometers, capturing about 12
million cubic meters in an average year.[26]
Seawater desalination
In early 2002, under the impact of drought, the government approved
the construction of large seawater desalination plants along the
Mediterranean coast. These installations would supply 500 million m3/yr by 2015.[27] The government's goal is to reach a capacity of 750 million m3/year
by 2020. All projects were to be executed by the private sector,
through international tenders. At the end of 2013 four plants, with a
total capacity of almost 500 million m3/year per year, were operational. All plants use reverse osmosis, utilizing self-generated power.
The Ashkelon seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant was the largest in the world when it was commissioned.[28][29] The project was developed as a BOT (Build-Operate-Transfer) by a consortium of three international companies: Veolia water, IDE Technologies and Elran.[30] In March 2006, it was voted 'Desalination Plant of the Year' in the Global Water Awards.[31]
The NIS 1.5 billion (US$ 375 million) financing of the Hadera plant
was led by a consortium of foreign banks with 50% financed by the European Investment Bank (EIB), 25% by the French Calyon Corporate and Investment Bank and 25% by Banco Espirito Santo (BES), a Portuguese investment bank.[32]
The construction of the plant in Ashdod by Mekorot had been delayed
by an injunction in court from the private company IDE which had built
the Ashkelon plant. It alleged that the contract had been awarded to
Mekorot without a tender. In June 2008, the Tel Aviv District Court
decided that IDE was right.[33][34] In February 2009 Mekorot Development and Initiatives Ltd, a subsidiary of Mekorot,
published an international tender for the planning and construction of
the plant. The tender foresees an option for the winner to become a
partner in the special project company controlled by Mekorot that will
carry out the project, and in the project operating and maintenance
company, with a stake of up to 40%.[35]
Existing Israeli water desalination facilities[36]
In 2004, a representative of the Israeli Water Commission had suggested at an international conference to use 50 million m3/year
from the desalination plant in Hadera for the exclusive supply of up to
one million Palestinians in the Northern West Bank.[45]
Environmental groups, such as the Israel Union for Environmental Defense,
have called for a moratorium on new desalination plants, beyond the
ones already in the advanced bidding stages. "We believe that even in
2020, we can make do with desalination 315 million cubic meters", a
report says. It calls for water conservation, the treatment of
wastewater and the recycling of greywater,
as well as using construction techniques that allow rainwater to
percolate into underground water reservoirs. The authors of the report
claim that this would reduce the need for massive desalination of
seawater and the environmental damage it causes, including the emission
of greenhouse gases.[46] In October 2011 the Water Authority published a Master Plan for Desalination in Israel.[47]
Brackish water desalination
In addition to these large plants, there are around 30 small mostly
brackish water desalination plants that desalinate about 30 million m3/year. Most of these installations are in the Arava and the Negev. The largest of them (~11 million m3/year) is located in Eilat
and desalinates brackish water and Red Sea water for use of the city's
inhabitants. The first desalination installations were established in
Israel in 1965.[6]
According to other reports Israel desalinated only around 16,500 cubic meter/day (m3/d) of brackish water in 2008, corresponding to 6 million m3/year. In 2008 the government planned to increase this capacity more than 13-fold to somewhere between 220,000 m3/d and 274,000 m3/d
by 2012. Some plants are intended to help to rehabilitate the southern
part of the coastal aquifer, which has been adversely affected by
salinity due to overextraction.[48] In addition, a desalination facility with a capacity of 54,800 m3/d–82,200 m3/d is planned in the Western Galilee. In Nitzanim in southern Israel, a plan is being studied for increasing the size of the 9,600 m3/d desalination plant.[48]
Water use
Water use in 2009 was 1.91 billion cubic meters of which fresh water
use was 1.26 billion cubic meters. Water use was 100 million cubic
meters (5.2%) to Jordan and the Palestinian Authority, 1016 million
cubic meters for agriculture(53.2%), 684 million cubic meters (35.8%)
for domestic and public uses and 110 million cubic meters (5.7%) for
industrial use.[49] According to one estimate, average domestic water consumption in Israel is 137 litres[2] per person per day on average, about half of indoor water use in the United States.[50] However, according to another estimate water use per person per year is 90 cubic meter, corresponding to 247 litres per day.[20]
The latter estimate includes losses and probably also water use by
offices that may not have been included in the former figures.
Sanitation
Israel generally has a modern sanitation system particularly in major
Jewish towns and cities. However, a report released by the Israel Union
for Environmental Defense in 2010 found that 500,000 homes in Israel
are not linked to a central sewage system. The vast majority of the 150
communities are Arab communities that are have no sewage hook-up and
whose waste is therefore expelled into cesspits or the local
environment. Jerusalem and Ariel
were reported as dumping some of their refuse into streams. Israel's
Water Authority said that Israel is in the "top spot globally" for using
treated waste and that only 2.7% of raw sewage flows into streams and
none into the sea.[51]
Service quality
According to the Ministry of Environment, 97.9% of the tests complied
with drinking water quality standards. An analysis of results since
1989, when disinfection
of groundwater was first introduced, has shown a constant improvement
in the quality of drinking water, with the percentage of violations
decreasing from 8.4% in 1989 to 2.1% in 1999. In 2000, the Minister of
Health signed an amended version of public health regulations which
raise chemical standards for water quality to very stringent standards.
Maximum levels for 38 new chemical substances—including pesticides, organic solvents and petroleum products—were set for the first time while existing standards for nitrates, lead, cadmium and zinc were tightened.[52]
The salinity
of supplied water in Israel varies from very low salinity water
(10 mg/l of chlorides) from the Upper Jordan River, 200 mg/l from the
Sea of Galilee, and more than 1500 mg/l from groundwater sources in the
south.[53]
Responsibility for water supply and sanitation
Responsibilities for the water and sanitation sector in Israel are
defined in two key laws: The Water Law of 1959, amended most recently in
2006, and the Water and Sewerage Corporations Law of 2001.
Policy and regulation
The Minister of Energy and Water Resources (until 2012 the Minister of Infrastructures) is the Cabinet member responsible to the Parliament (the Knesset)
for the management of water resources, proposing the national water
policy for Cabinet approval and subsequently implementing it, as well as
for Israel's external water relations. Since some aspects of the
management, protection and allocation of water resources fall into the
spheres of other Ministries, the exercise of certain powers requires
their consent. The principal Ministries in that category are the
Ministries of Agriculture (agricultural allocations and pricing),
Environmental Protection (water quality standards), Health (drinking
water quality), Finance (tariffs and investments) and the Interior
(urban water supply). The Administration for the Development of Sewage
Infrastructures, a unit in the Ministry of Energy and Water Resources,
implements government policy in the field of development of sanitation.[54]
The Water Authority
With the 2006 amendment to the Water Law the Governmental Authority
of Water and Sewerage (the "Water Authority") was created. The Water
Authority is an inter-agency body overseen by a council composed of
senior representatives of the Ministries of Finance, Energy and Water,
Environmental Protection and Interior. The Director of the Authority
(formerly the "Water Commissioner") is a cabinet-appointed civil servant
reporting to the Minister of Energy and Water and to the Knesset. He is
nominated by the Cabinet for a period of five years. There also is a
Water Board, which is composed of representatives of the Government and
the public (producers, suppliers and consumers), whose consent/advice
must be obtained for certain measures. Past and present water
commissioners or Directors of the Water Authority include Meir Ben Meir
(1996–2000), Shimon Tal (2001–2006), Uri Shani (2006-2011) and Alexander
Kushnir (since 2011).[55]
Service provision
Bulk water supply through Mekorot
The state-owned National Water Company (Mekorot) is responsible for bulk water supply through the National Water Carrier,
transferring water from the Sea of Galilee and other sources mainly to
the coastal plain. Mekorot supplies 1.5 billion cubic meters of water in
an average year, 70% of Israel's entire water supply and 80% of its
drinking water. It supplies water to about 4,800 intermediary water
providers, including municipalities, regional associations, agricultural
settlements and industrial consumers. It also operates 31 desalination
plants treating nearly a million cubic meters of seawater and brackish
water every day. The company's eight wastewater treatment plants,
including the Dan Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant, treat 40% of all
Israel's wastewater. Its nine reclamation plants enable 70% of the
treated effluent to be reused for agriculture.[56]
In 2007 the structure of Mekorot has been changed. The parent company,
"Mekorot Water", continues to produce, transport and supply water. One
of its subsidiaries, "Mekorot Ventures and Development", concentrates,
among other things, on the desalination of seawater, wastewater
treatment, projects for the municipal sector and projects abroad.
Another subsidiary focuses on building and maintaining water
infrastructures, primarily for the parent company. Mekorot also serves
in some cases also as a Regional Water Authority. A Regional Water
Authority does not have to be owned or controlled by the Government and
may be owned either privately or by municipalities.[57]
Water distribution and sanitation
Water distribution and sanitation is the responsibility of 52
regional water and sewer corporations that serve 132 local authorities
with 5.5 million inhabitants.[58] Outside their service area local authorities provide services directly to customers.
Local authorities consist of 76 cities (with a population ranging from 2,500 to 750,000 inhabitants), 144 local councils in small towns and 53 regional councils
in rural areas. The Water and Sewerage Corporations Law of 2001
provides for the creation of regional companies to which local
authorities would gradually transfer their water and sewerage services.
The 2001 Law aims at, inter alia, full cost recovery and the
promotion of private sector investments for infrastructure. The transfer
of service provision from municipalities to public service entities
(called "Water and Sewerage Corporations") is initially voluntary, but
at a later stage it will become compulsory. It had been initially
envisaged that by 2010 all municipal water and sewerage services would
have been transferred to Water and Sewerage Corporations. The
Corporations may serve the area of one or more municipality, although in
the latter case all municipalities in the service coverage area have to
agree. The Corporations have quality of service obligations and are
required to obtain a permit from the Ministry of the Interior. The
Corporations may be owned either by the municipality (ies) in whose
service area they operate or by private investors. The Government may
intervene in the operation of the Corporation, including transferring
the provision of the services to another entity in case of failure in
service provision, including in case of bankruptcy.[59]
The aim was to have only about 15 large regional water and sanitation
companies. However, 52 companies had been established as of 2010 because
mayors resisted the establishment of larger regional companies.[58]
An example of a multi-municipal utility that precedes the 2001 law is
the Dan Regional Sewerage Board (Shafdan), which includes seven
municipalities in and around Tel Aviv. It owns the Dan wastewater
treatment plant, the largest wastewater treatment plant in the country
which treats about 130 million cubic meters of wastewater annually for
reuse in agriculture (see under reclaimed water). Mekorot operates the
plant on behalf of Shafdan.
Financial aspects and efficiency
In Israel water tariffs are levied for all uses and at all stages of
production, from groundwater abstraction, to bulk water sales to final
users. Investments are financed both through self-financing from water
sales revenues, through commercial debt and through various subsidies
paid to municipalities and to Mekorot.
Fees and tariffs
Domestic water tariffs charged by local authorities are set by
the Ministers of Interior and Finance. They are progressive
(increasing-block) tariffs. The first block is for the initial 3.5 cubic
meters per month for each housing unit and was set at NIS 9.09 ($2.43)
in 2013, with higher consumption charged at NIS 14.60 per cubic meter.[60] In condominiums apartments usually have their own meters.[61] In 2005 the average household expenditures on water stood at 0.9% of total household consumption expenditures.[62]
In June 2013 the Finance Ministry and the Council of Local Authorities
reached agreement that the base water tariff will be reduced by 5% by
the end of 2015. Water tariffs had gone up by over 30% in previous
years.[63] Abstraction Fees In 1999, during a severe drought, it was
decided that all those extracting water from water sources would be
charged with an extraction levy. The obligation for payment of the
extraction levy falls on the extractor who can pass the costs on to the
consumers.[61] Mekorot bulk water tariffs
The prices Mekorot is entitled to charge are the rates set by the
Ministers of Energy and Water and Finance, approved by the Knesset's
Finance Committee, and updated from time to time according to the
changes in the Consumer Price Index, electricity rates and the average
wage index.[61]
The rates are categorized by the different uses: domestic, consumption
and services, industry and agriculture. The rates for industrial and
agriculture uses are lower than those for domestic consumption and
services. Water for agriculture is supplied on a less reliable basis and
is of poorer quality.[61]
Subsidies are provided for agriculture and for remote and elevated
localities. The bulk water tariff for a specific use is the same
throughout the country, irrespective of the difference in costs of
supplying water to a specific locality.[64]
Mekorot bulk water tariffs were increased by 25% in January 2010, to a
large extent to absorb increases in electricity prices. Energy accounts
for an ever larger share of water supply costs because of the increasing
share of seawater desalination.
Investment
The total investment in the sector consists of investments by Mekorot
in bulk water supply (including water supply for domestic uses,
industry and agriculture), as well as investments by municipalities in
drinking water distribution, sewerage and wastewater treatment. If half
of the Mekorot investments of US$ 240 million in 2006 can be attributed
to domestic water supply (US$ 120 million), and US$ 125 million were
invested by municipalities in sanitation (see below), total investments
in drinking water supply and sanitation stood at least US$ 245 million
per year, excluding investments in desalination plants under BOO schemes
and excluding investments in drinking water distribution by
municipalities.
Financing
Municipalities receive grants and soft loans in order to finance
investments, particularly in wastewater treatment. These subsidies are
channeled through various funds, such as the Water Networks
Rehabilitation Fund, the National Sewage Program and the Wastewater
Renovation and Reuse Program.[65]
The State invests about NIS 450 million per year (about US$ 125
million) in sanitation through these funds, mostly in the form of long
term subsidized loans (20 years, 5% interest), and some in the form of
grants.[66]
Mekorot receives a subsidy from the Ministry of Finance to cover the
difference between its supply costs and the tariffs it is allowed to
charge to its customers. Between 1993 and 1999 government support to
Mekorot declined from 40% to 23% of its turnover, to a large extent
because of an increase in the efficiency of Mekorot. This has been
induced by a change introduced in 1994, whereby Mekorot's tariffs were
not set any more under a cost-plus formula, but a 2.5% annual factor for
efficiency increases was built into the tariff formula.[67]
Most large-scale seawater desalination plants are being privately
financed as BOT projects. The Hadera plant, for example, is led, for the
first time, by a consortium of foreign banks, and amounts to NIS 1.5
billion according to the following breakdown: 50% The European
Investment Bank (EIB); 25% the French Calyon Corporate and Investment
Bank, which specializes in long term projects; 25% Banco Espirito Santo
(BES), a Portuguese investment bank.[68]
Mekorot Finances
Throughout its history, the Mekorot has been financially stable
according to information published on its website. In 2006, Mekorot's
turnover was over $700 million, shareholders’ equity was $500 million
and total assets were in excess of $2.8 billion. In 2006, Mekorot
invested over $240 million in developing water facilities, including a
new central filtration plant, compared with $180 million in investments
in 2005. For a number of years Mekorot's fundraising instruments
(primarily, bond offerings) have been awarded the highest AAA rating by
the Ma’alot credit rating agency
based on the following factors: Because tariffs established by the
government are low and do not cover Mekorot's operating costs, the
company receives compensation for the difference between what it costs
to produce a unit of water and what it is allowed to charge. The level
of subsidies is fixed in multi-annual agreements, the first one having
covered the period 1993-98, the second one 1998-2006 and the third one
for a much shorter period, 2007-08.[69]
Awards and recognition
In 2012, the Dan Region Wastewater Treatment Plant was cited as a
global model by the United Nations. The plant, known locally as Shafdan,
was lauded for its unique method of using the natural filtration
qualities of sand to improve the quality of sewage.[70]